The passage below is accompanied by a set of questions. Choose the best answer to each question.

Nature has all along yielded her flesh to humans. First, we took nature's materials as food, fibers, and shelter. Then we learned to extract raw materials from her biosphere to create our own new synthetic materials. Now Bios is yielding us her mind-we are taking her logic.

Clockwork logic-the logic of the machines-will only build simple contraptions. Truly complex systems such as a cell, a meadow, an economy, or a brain (natural or artificial) require a rigorous nontechnological logic. We now see that no logic except bio-logic can assemble a thinking device, or even a workable system of any magnitude.

It is an astounding discovery that one can extract the logic of Bios out of biology and have something useful. Although many philosophers in the past have suspected one could abstract the laws of life and apply them elsewhere, it wasn't until the complexity of computers and human-made systems became as complicated as living things, that it was possible to prove this. It's eerie how much of life can be transferred. So far, some of the traits of the living that have successfully been transported to mechanical systems are: self-replication, self-governance, limited self-repair, mild evolution, and partial learning.

We have reason to believe yet more can be synthesized and made into something new. Yet at the same time that the logic of Bios is being imported into machines, the logic of Technos is being imported into life. The root of bioengineering is the desire to control the organic long enough to improve it. Domesticated plants and animals are examples of technos-logic applied to life. The wild aromatic root of the Queen Anne's lace weed has been fine-tuned over generations by selective herb gatherers until it has evolved into a sweet carrot of the garden; the udders of wild bovines have been selectively enlarged in a "unnatural" way to satisfy humans rather than calves. Milk cows and carrots, therefore, are human inventions as much as steam engines and gunpowder are. But milk cows and carrots are more indicative of the kind of inventions humans will make in the future: products that are grown rather than manufactured.

Genetic engineering is precisely what cattle breeders do when they select better strains of Holsteins, only bioengineers employ more precise and powerful control. While carrot and milk cow breeders had to rely on diffuse organic evolution, modern genetic engineers can use directed artificial evolution-purposeful design-which greatly accelerates improvements.

The overlap of the mechanical and the lifelike increases year by year. Part of this bionic convergence is a matter of words. The meanings of "mechanical" and "life" are both stretching until all complicated things can be perceived as machines, and all self-sustaining machines can be perceived as alive. Yet beyond semantics, two concrete trends are happening: (1) Human-made things are behaving more lifelike, and (2) Life is becoming more engineered. The apparent veil between the organic and the manufactured has crumpled to reveal that the two really are, and have always been, of one being.

01.

The author claims that, "Part of this bionic convergence is a matter of words". Which one of the following statements best expresses the point being made by the author?

• A. 

  "Bios" and "Technos" are both convergent forms of logic, but they generate meanings about the world that are mutually exclusive.

• B. 

  A bionic convergence indicates the meeting ground of genetic engineering and artificial intelligence.

• C. 

  "Mechanical" and "life" are words from different logical systems and are, therefore, fundamentally incompatible in meaning.

• D. 

  "Mechanical" and "life" were earlier seen as opposite in meaning, but the difference between the two is increasingly blurred.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option D is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

“The overlap of the mechanical and the lifelike increases year by year. Part of this bionic convergence is a matter of words . The meanings of “mechanical” and “life” are both stretching until all complicated things can be perceived as machines, and all self-sustaining machines can be perceived as alive.”

 

From the above line, the author tries to show the increasing similarities between ‘mechanical’ and ‘lifelike’ with the passage of time. He states that this increase in similarities will continue till the meanings and the perception of the words become synonymous.

 

Option A: This option states the opposite of what the author tried to convey and hence is not the correct option. Option B: This option is distorted and can be rejected on the same grounds as option A.

 

Option C: This is a distorted inference, and the author did not use the above statement to show the meeting grounds of ‘genetic engineering’ and ‘mechanical engineering’. Thus, this is not the correct option.

 

Option D: This option aptly expresses the point made by the author in the last paragraph, and hence is the correct option. Thus, the correct option is D. 

02.

Which one of the following sets of words/phrases best serves as keywords to the passage?

• A. 

  Complex systems; Carrots; Milk cows; Convergence; Technos-logic

• B. 

  Nature; Bios; Technos; Self-repair; Holsteins

• C. 

  Nature; Computers; Carrots; Milk cows; Genetic engineering

• D. 

  Complex systems; Bio-logic; Bioengineering; Technos-logic; Convergence

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option D is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

The starting two paragraphs discuss the complexity of the biosphere and how it is impossible to build a thinking device without bio-logic in the next paragraphs, the author describes how with the increasing complexity of human-made systems(not until it was comparable to living things), it has become possible to transfer these traits into mechanical systems. Examples of these are bioengineering and genetic engineering. Then in the concluding paragraph, the author discusses about the convergence of these two logics(Biologic and Techno logic).

 

Options B and C do not talk about the conclusion of the passage(convergence of the logics), and hence can be eliminated. Out of options A and D, we should select the option with bio-logic and techno-logic instead of carrots and cows, because the broader idea is about bio and techno, not carrots and cows.

 

Thus, the correct option is D. 

03.

None of the following statements is implied by the arguments of the passage, EXCEPT:

• A. 

  purposeful design represents the pinnacle of scientific expertise in the service of human betterment and civilisational progress.

• B. 

  the biological realm is as complex as the mechanical one; which is why the logic of Bios is being imported into machines.

• C. 

  genetic engineers and bioengineers are the same insofar as they both seek to force evolution in an artificial way.

• D. 

  historically, philosophers have known that the laws of life can be abstracted and applied elsewhere.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option C is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

"Although many philosophers in the past have suspected one could abstract the laws of life and apply them elsewhere, it wasn't until the complexity of computers and human-made systems became as complicated as living things that it was possible to prove this."

 

Option A can be easily rejected from the above excerpt from the passage. Also, it can be inferred that now(not before), since the complexity of computers and human-made systems are comparable, the logic of Bios can be applied to machines. Although option C seems to convey the same meaning, it generalises the complexity and is a distorted inference.

 

The author has nowhere mentioned or implied in the passage that purposeful design represents the pinnacle of scientific expertise in the service of human betterment and civilisational progress.

 

Thus, option D can also be rejected.

 

"Genetic engineering is precisely what cattle breeders do when they select better strains of Holsteins, only bioengineers employ more precise and powerful control. While carrot and milk cow breeders had to rely on diffuse organic evolution, modern genetic engineers can use directed artificial evolution—purposeful design—which greatly accelerates improvements."

 

From the above excerpt from the penultimate paragraph, it can be inferred that although genetic engineering has less control over the products than bioengineering, they both try to evolve the product artificially. Thus, option B can be inferred from the passage.

 

Thus, the correct option is B. 

04.

The author claims that, "The apparent veil between the organic and the manufactured has crumpled to reveal that the two really are, and have always been, of one being." Which one of the following statements best expresses the point being made by the author here?

• A. 

  Scientific advances are making it increasingly difficult to distinguish between organic reality and manufactured reality.

• B. 

  Apparent reality and organic reality are distinguished by the fact that the former is manufactured.

• C. 

  Organic reality has crumpled under the veil of manufacturing, rendering the apparent and the real as the same being.

• D. 

  The crumpling of the organic veil between apparent and manufactured reality reveals them to have the same being.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option A is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

"Yet beyond semantics, two concrete trends are happening: (1)Human-made things are behaving more lifelike, and (2) Life is becoming more engineered. The apparent veil between the organic and the manufactured has crumpled to reveal that the two really are, and have always been, of one being .."

 

The main argument made by the author in the last paragraph is regarding the increasing similarities between manufactured and organic(lifelike) reality. According to the author, the growing similarities(because of the scientific advances) have distorted the understanding of the realities and have made us think that perhaps these two are and have always been the same.

 

Option A: This is a distorted inference. It is not that the Organic reality has crumpled under the veil of manufacturing; instead, their meanings are converging mutually. Thus, this is not the correct option.

 

Option B: This is again a distorted inference. It is not the organic veil that has crumpled; instead, it is the apparent veil. Similarly, in the second half of the option, the organic reality is replaced with the apparent reality.

 

Option C: This option aptly expresses the main point of the author and is the correct option.

 

Option D: The author nowhere stated or implied this, and hence this option can be easilyeliminated. Thus, the correct option is D. 

The complexity of modern problems often precludes any one person from fully understanding them. Factors contributing to rising obesity levels, for example, include transportation systems and infrastructure, media, convenience foods, changing social norms, human biology and psychological factors. The multidimensional or layered character of complex problems also undermines the principle of meritocracy: the idea that the ‘best person’ should be hired. There is no best person. When putting together an oncological research team, a biotech company such as Gilead or Genentech would not construct a multiple-choice test and hire the top scorers, or hire people whose resumes score highest according to some performance criteria. Instead, they would seek diversity. They would build a team of people who bring diverse knowledge bases, tools and analytic skills.

Believers in a meritocracy might grant that teams ought to be diverse but then argue that meritocratic principles should apply within each category. Thus the team should consist of the ‘best’ mathematicians, the ‘best’ oncologists, and the ‘best’ biostatisticians from within the pool. That position suffers from a similar flaw.

Even with a knowledge domain, no test or criteria applied to individuals will produce the best team. Each of these domains possesses such depth and breadth, that no test can exist. Consider the field of neuroscience. Upwards of 50,000 papers were published last year covering various techniques, domains of enquiry and levels of analysis, ranging from molecules and synapses up through networks of neurons. Given that complexity, any attempt to rank a collection of neuroscientists from best to worst, as if they were competitors in the 50-metre butterfly, must fail. What could be true is that given a specific task and the composition of a particular team, one scientist would be more likely to contribute than another. Optimal hiring depends on context. Optimal teams will be diverse.

Evidence for this claim can be seen in the way that papers and patents that combine diverse ideas tend to rank as high-impact. It can also be found in the structure of the so-called random decision forest, a state-of-the-art machine-learning algorithm.

Random forests consist of ensembles of decision trees. If classifying pictures, each tree makes a vote: is that a picture of a fox or a dog? A weighted majority rules. Random forests can serve many ends. They can identify bank fraud and diseases, recommend ceiling fans and predict online dating behaviour. When building a forest, you do not select the best trees as they tend to make similar classifications. You want diversity. Programmers achieve that diversity by training each tree on different data, a technique known as bagging. They also boost the forest ‘cognitively’ by training trees on the hardest cases – those that the current forest gets wrong. This ensures even more diversity and accurate forests."

Yet the fallacy of meritocracy persists. Corporations, non-profits, governments, universities and even preschools test, score and hire the ‘best’. This all but guarantees not creating the best team. Ranking people by common criteria produces homogeneity. That’s not likely to lead to breakthroughs.

01.

The author critiques meritocracy for all the following reasons EXCEPT that:

 

• A. 

  modern problems are multifaceted and require varied skill-sets to be solved.

• B. 

  diversity and context-specificity are important for making major advances in any field.

• C. 

  criteria designed to assess merit are insufficient to test expertise in any field of knowledge.

• D. 

  an ideal team comprises of best individuals from diverse fields of knowledge.

   

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option D is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

02.

Which of the following conditions would weaken the efficacy of a random decision forest?

 

• A. 

  If a large number of decision trees in the ensemble were trained on data derived from easy cases.

• B. 

  If a large number of decision trees in the ensemble were trained on data derived from easy and hard cases.

• C. 

  If the types of ensembles of decision trees in the forest were doubled.

• D. 

  If the types of decision trees in each ensemble of the forest were doubled.

   

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option A is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

03.

Which of the following conditions, if true, would invalidate the passage’s main argument?

 

• A. 

  If assessment tests were made more extensive and rigorous.

• B. 

  If top-scorers possessed multidisciplinary knowledge that enabled them to look at a problem from several perspectives.

• C. 

  If it were proven that teams characterised by diversity end up being conflicted about problems and take a long time to arrive at a solution.

• D. 

  If a new machine-learning algorithm were developed that proved to be more effective than the random decision forest.

   

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option B is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

 

04.

On the basis of the passage, which of the following teams is likely to be most effective in solving the problem of rising obesity levels?

 

• A. 

  A team comprised of nutritionists, psychologists, urban planners and media personnel, who have each scored a distinction in their respective subject tests.

• B. 

  A team comprised of nutritionists, psychologists, urban planners and media personnel, who have each performed well in their respective subject tests.

• C. 

  A specialised team of nutritionists from various countries, who are also trained in the machine-learning algorithm of random decision forest.

• D. 

   

  A specialised team of top nutritionists from various countries, who also possess some knowledge of psychology.

   

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option B is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

05.

Which of the following best describes the purpose of the example of neuroscience?

 

• A. 

  In the modern age, every field of knowledge is so vast that a meaningful assessment of merit is impossible.

• B. 

  Unlike other fields of knowledge, neuroscience is an exceptionally complex field, making a meaningful assessment of neuroscientists impossible.

• C. 

  In narrow fields of knowledge, a meaningful assessment of expertise has always been possible.

• D. 

  Neuroscience is an advanced field of science because of its connections with other branches of science like oncology and biostatistics.

   

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option A is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

Grove snails as a whole are distributed all over Europe, but a specific variety of the snail, with a distinctive white-lipped shell, is found exclusively in Ireland and in the Pyrenees mountains that lie on the border between France and Spain. The researchers sampled a total of 423 snail specimens from 36 sites distributed across Europe, with an emphasis on gathering large numbers of the white-lipped variety. When they sequenced genes from the mitochondrial DNA of each of these snails and used algorithms to analyze the genetic diversity between them, they found that a distinct lineage (the snails with the white-lipped shells) was indeed endemic to the two very specific and distant places in question.

Explaining this is tricky. Previously, some had speculated that the strange distributions of creatures such as the white-lipped grove snails could be explained by convergent evolution—in which two populations evolve the same trait by coincidence—but the underlying genetic similarities between the two groups rules that out. Alternately, some scientists had suggested that the white-lipped variety had simply spread over the whole continent, then been wiped out everywhere besides Ireland and the Pyrenees, but the researchers say their sampling and subsequent DNA analysis eliminate that possibility too.

“If the snails naturally colonized Ireland, you would expect to find some of the same genetic type in other areas of Europe, especially Britain. We just don’t find them,” Davidson, the lead author, said in a press statement.

Moreover, if they’d gradually spread across the continent, there would be some genetic variation within the white-lipped type, because evolution would introduce variety over the thousands of years it would have taken them to spread from the Pyrenees to Ireland. That variation doesn’t exist, at least in the genes sampled. This means that rather than the organism gradually expanding its range, large populations instead were somehow moved en mass to the other location within the space of a few dozen generations, ensuring a lack of genetic variety.

“There is a very clear pattern, which is difficult to explain except by involving humans,” Davidson said. Humans, after all, colonized Ireland roughly 9,000 years ago, and the oldest fossil evidence of grove snails in Ireland dates to roughly the same era. Additionally, there is archaeological evidence of early sea trade between the ancient peoples of Spain and Ireland via the Atlantic and even evidence that humans routinely ate these types of snails before the advent of agriculture, as their burnt shells have been found in Stone Age trash heaps.

The simplest explanation, then? Boats. These snails may have inadvertently traveled on the floor of the small, coast-hugging skiffs these early humans used for travel, or they may have been intentionally carried to Ireland by the seafarers as a food source. “The highways of the past were rivers and the ocean–as the river that flanks the Pyrenees was an ancient trade route to the Atlantic, what we’re actually seeing might be the long lasting legacy of snails that hitched a ride as humans travelled from the South of France to Ireland 8,000 years ago,” Davidson said.

01.

All of the following evidence supports the passage’s explanation of sea travel/trade EXCEPT:

 

• A. 

  the coincidental existence of similar traits in the white-lipped grove snails of Ireland and the Pyrenees because of convergent evolution.

• B. 

  the oldest fossil evidence of white-lipped grove snails in Ireland dates back to roughly 9,000 years ago, the time when humans colonised Ireland.

• C. 

  absence of genetic variation within the white-lipped grove snails of Ireland and the Pyrenees, whose genes were sampled.

• D. 

  archaeological evidence of early sea trade between the ancient peoples of Spain and Ireland via the Atlantic Ocean.

   

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option A is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

02.

The passage outlines several hypotheses and evidence related to white-lipped grove snails to arrive at the most convincing explanation for:

 

• A. 

  why the white-lipped variety of grove snails were wiped out everywhere except in Ireland and the Pyrenees.

• B. 

  how the white-lipped variety of grove snails independently evolved in Ireland and the Pyrenees.

• C. 

  why the white-lipped variety of grove snails are found only in Ireland and the Pyrenees.

• D. 

  how the white-lipped variety of grove snails independently evolved in Ireland and the Pyrenees.

   

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option C is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

03.

Which one of the following makes the author eliminate convergent evolution as a probable explanation for why white-lipped grove snails are found in Ireland and the Pyrenees?

 

• A. 

  The absence of genetic variation between white-lipped grove snails of Ireland and the Pyrenees.

• B. 

  The absence of genetic similarities between white-lipped grove snails of Ireland and snails from other parts of Europe, especially Britain.

• C. 

  The coincidental evolution of similar traits (white-lipped shell) in the grove snails of Ireland and the Pyrenees.

• D. 

  The distinct lineage of white-lipped grove snails found specifically in Ireland and the Pyrenees.

   

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option A is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

04.

In paragraph 4, the evidence that “humans routinely ate these types of snails before the advent of agriculture” can be used to conclude that:

 

• A. 

  white-lipped grove snails may have inadvertently traveled from the Pyrenees to Ireland on the floor of the small, coast-hugging skiffs that early seafarers used for travel.

• B. 

  the seafarers who traveled from the Pyrenees to Ireland might have carried white-lipped grove snails with them as edibles.

• C. 

  rivers and oceans in the Stone Age facilitated trade in white-lipped grove snails.

• D. 

  9,000 years ago, during the Stone Age, humans traveled from the South of France to Ireland via the Atlantic Ocean.

   

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option B is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

Will a day come when India’s poor can access government services as easily as drawing cash from an ATM? No country in the world has made accessing education or health or policing or dispute resolution as easy as an ATM, because the nature of these activities requires individuals to use their discretion in a positive way. Technology can certainly facilitate this in a variety of ways if it is seen as one part of an overall approach, but the evidence so far in education, for instance, is that just adding computers alone doesn’t make education any better.

The dangerous illusion of technology is that it can create stronger, top down accountability of service providers in implementation-intensive services within existing public sector organisations. One notion is that electronic management information systems (EMIS) keep better track of inputs and those aspects of personnel that are ‘EMIS visible’ can lead to better services. A recent study examined attempts to increase attendance of Auxiliary Nurse Midwife (ANMs) at clinics in Rajasthan, which involved high-tech time clocks to monitor attendance. The study’s title says it all: Band-Aids on a Corpse. E-governance can be just as bad as any other governance when the real issue is people and their motivation.

For services to improve, the people providing the services have to want to do a better job with the skills they have. A study of medical care in Delhi found that even though providers, in the public sector had much better skills than private sector providers their provision of care in actual practice was much worse.

In implementation-intensive services the key to success is face-to-face interactions between a teacher, a nurse, a policeman, an extension agent and a citizen. This relationship is about power. Amartya Sen’s report on education in West Bengal had a supremely telling anecdote in which the villagers forced the teacher to attend school, but then, when the parents went off to work, the teacher did not teach, but forced the children to massage his feet. As long as the system empowers providers over citizens, technology is irrelevant.

The answer to successfully providing basic services is to create systems that provide both autonomy and accountability. In basic education for instance, the answer to poor teaching is not controlling teachers more. The key is to hire teachers who want to teach and let them teach, expressing their professionalism and vocation as a teacher through autonomy in the classroom. This autonomy has to be matched with accountability for results—not just narrowly measured through test scores, but broadly for the quality of the education they provide.

A recent study in Uttar Pradesh showed that if, somehow, all civil service teachers could be replaced with contract teachers, the state could save a billion dollars a year in revenue and double student learning. Just the additional autonomy and accountability of contracts through local groups—even without complementary system changes in information and empowerment—led to that much improvement. The first step to being part of the solution is to create performance information accessible to those outside of the government.

01.

In the context of the passage, we can infer that the title “Band Aids on a Corpse” (in paragraph 2) suggests that:

 

• A. 

  the nurses who attended the clinics were too poorly trained to provide appropriate medical care.

• B. 

  the electronic monitoring system was a superficial solution to a serious problem.

• C. 

  the nurses attended the clinics, but the clinics were ill-equipped.

• D. 

  the clinics were better funded, but performance monitoring did not result in any improvement.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option B is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

02.

According to the author, service delivery in Indian education can be improved in all of the following ways EXCEPT through:

• A. 

  use of technology.

• B. 

  recruitment of motivated teachers.

• C. 

  access to information on the quality of teaching.

• D. 

  elimination of government involvement.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option D is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

03.

Which of the following, IF TRUE, would undermine the passage’s main argument?

 

• A. 

  If absolute instead of moderate technological surveillance is exercised over the performance of service providers.

• B. 

  Empowerment of service providers leads to increased complacency and rigged performance results.

• C. 

  If it were proven that increase in autonomy of service providers leads to an exponential increase in their work ethic and sense of responsibility.

• D. 

  If it were proven that service providers in the private sector have better skills than those in the public sector.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option B is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

04.

The author questions the use of monitoring systems in services that involve face-to-face interaction between service providers and clients because such systems:

• A. 

  do not improve services that need committed service providers.

• B. 

  are not as effective in the public sector as they are in the private sector.

• C. 

  improve the skills but do not increase the motivation of service providers

• D. 

  are ineffective because they are managed by the government.

   

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option A is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

05.

The main purpose of the passage is to:

 

 

• A. 

  critique the government’s involvement in educational activities and other implementation-intensive services.

• B. 

  argue that some types of services can be improved by providing independence and requiring accountability.

• C. 

  analyse the shortcomings of government-appointed nurses and their management through technology.

• D. 

  find a solution to the problem of poor service delivery in education by examining different strategies.

   

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option B is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

The passage below is accompanied by a set of questions. Choose the best answer to each question.

Cuttlefish are full of personality, as behavioral ecologist Alexandra Schnell found out while researching the cephalopod's potential to display self-control. . . . "Self-control is thought to be the cornerstone of intelligence, as it is an important prerequisite for complex decision-making and planning for the future," says Schnell . . .

[Schnell's] study used a modified version of the "marshmallow test" . . . During the original marshmallow test, psychologist Walter Mischel presented children between age four and six with one marshmallow. He told them that if they waited 15 minutes and didn't eat it, he would give them a second marshmallow. A long-term follow-up study showed that the children who waited for the second marshmallow had more success later in life. . . . The cuttlefish version of the experiment looked a lot different. The researchers worked with six cuttlefish under nine months old and presented them with seafood instead of sweets. (Preliminary experiments showed that cuttlefishes' favorite food is live grass shrimp, while raw prawns are so-so and Asian shore crab is nearly unacceptable.) Since the researchers couldn't explain to the cuttlefish that they would need to wait for their shrimp, they trained them to recognize certain shapes that indicated when a food item would become available. The symbols were pasted on transparent drawers so that the cuttlefish could see the food that was stored inside. One drawer, labeled with a circle to mean "immediate," held raw king prawn. Another drawer, labeled with a triangle to mean "delayed," held live grass shrimp. During a control experiment, square labels meant "never."

"If their self-control is flexible and I hadn't just trained them to wait in any context, you would expect the cuttlefish to take the immediate reward [in the control], even if it's their second preference," says Schnell . . . and that's what they did. That showed the researchers that cuttlefish wouldn't reject the prawns if it was the only food available. In the experimental trials, the cuttlefish didn't jump on the prawns if the live grass shrimp were labeled with a triangle”many waited for the shrimp drawer to open up. Each time the cuttlefish showed it could wait, the researchers tacked another ten seconds on to the next round of waiting before releasing the shrimp. The longest that a cuttlefish waited was 130 seconds.

Schnell [says] that the cuttlefish usually sat at the bottom of the tank and looked at the two food items while they waited, but sometimes, they would turn away from the king prawn "as if to distract themselves from the temptation of the immediate reward." In past studies, humans, chimpanzees, parrots and dogs also tried to distract themselves while waiting for a reward.

Not every species can use self-control, but most of the animals that can share another trait in common: long, social lives. Cuttlefish, on the other hand, are solitary creatures that don't form relationships even with mates or young. . . . "We don't know if living in a social group is important for complex cognition unless we also show those abilities are lacking in less social species," says . . . comparative psychologist Jennifer Vonk.

01.

All of the following constitute a point of difference between the "original" and "modified" versions of the marshmallow test EXCEPT that:

• A. 

  the former correlated self-control and future success, while the latter correlated self-control and survival advantages.

• B. 

  the former was performed over a longer time span than the latter.

• C. 

  the former had human subjects, while the latter had cuttlefish.

• D. 

  the former used verbal communication with its subjects, while the latter had to develop a symbolic means of communication.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

The passage does not state that the modified version of the marshmallow test aimed to correlate self-control with survival advantages.
The differences mentioned in options B, C and D are discussed in the passage. While in the original test, children had to wait for 15 minutes to get the second marshmallow, the longest a cuttlefish waited was 130 seconds. Options C and D are clearly true.

02.

Which one of the following, if true, would best complement the passage's findings?

 

• A. 

  Cuttlefish wait longer than 100 seconds for the shrimp drawer to open up.

• B. 

  Cuttlefish live in big groups that exhibit sociability.

• C. 

  Cuttlefish cannot distinguish between geometrical shapes.

• D. 

  Cuttlefish are equally fond of live grass shrimp and raw prawn.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option B is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

The key finding of the experiment is that cuttlefish exhibit self-control. According to the passage, species that exhibit self-control are usually social. Cuttlefish are not. But if it were true that cuttlefish exhibit sociability, you could conclude that like most other social creatures, cuttlefish, too, exhibit self-control. So if option B were true, the findings of the passage would be in line with what is generally observed. So, that way, it would complement the findings.
All other options don't relate positively with the passage's findings. The passage states cuttlefish waited up to 130 sec for the shrimp to be released, so option 1 doesn't add to the findings in any way. If the cuttlefish cannot recognise shapes, then the basic premise of the experiment“ that they see the shape pasted on the drawer and decide whether to wait“ is negated. If cuttlefish are equally fond of shrimp and prawn, there is no reason for them to wait. So, all other options are ruled out.

03.

In which one of the following scenarios would the cuttlefish's behaviour demonstrate self-control?

 

• A. 

  Asian shore crabs and raw prawns are simultaneously released while a live grass shrimp drawer labelled with a triangle is placed in front of the cuttlefish, to be opened after one minute.

• B. 

  raw prawns are released while a live grass shrimp drawer labelled with a square is placed in front of the cuttlefish.

• C. 

  live grass shrimp are released while two raw prawn drawers labelled with a circle and a triangle respectively are placed in front of the cuttlefish; the triangle-labelled drawer is opened after 50 seconds.

• D. 

  raw prawns are released while an Asian shore crab drawer labelled with a triangle is placed in front of the cuttlefish, to be opened after one minute.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

In the experiment, cuttlefish were trained to recognise circle to mean 'immediate', triangle to mean 'delayed' and square to mean 'never'. The passage also states that cuttlefishes' favorite food is live grass shrimp, while raw prawns are so-so and Asian shore crab is nearly unacceptable. So, the cuttlefish would demonstrate self -control if they waited for live grass shrimp labelled with a triangle to be opened while other food was readily available.

04.

Which one of the following cannot be inferred from Alexandra Schnell's experiment?

 

• A. 

  Intelligence in a species is impossible without sociability.

• B. 

  Like human children, cuttlefish are capable of self-control.

• C. 

  Cuttlefish exert self-control with the help of diversions.

• D. 

  Cuttlefish exercise choice when it comes to food.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

The passage states that 'most of the animals' that can exercise self-control are social. Cuttlefish exhibit self-control and are not social. So, option A is not inferred from the experiment.
Options B, C and D are easily inferred from the information given in the passage.

The passage below is accompanied by a set of questions. Choose the best answer to each question.

We cannot travel outside our neighbourhood without passports. We must wear the same plain clothes. We must exchange our houses every ten years. We cannot avoid labour. We all go to bed at the same time . . . We have religious freedom, but we cannot deny that the soul dies with the body, since 'but for the fear of punishment, they would have nothing but contempt for the laws and customs of society'. . . . In More's time, for much of the population, given the plenty and security on offer, such restraints would not have seemed overly unreasonable. For modern readers, however, Utopia appears to rely upon relentless transparency, the repression of variety, and the curtailment of privacy. Utopia provides security: but at what price? In both its external and internal relations, indeed, it seems perilously dystopian.

Such a conclusion might be fortified by examining selectively the tradition which follows More on these points. This often portrays societies where . . . 'it would be almost impossible for man to be depraved, or wicked'. . . . This is achieved both through institutions and mores, which underpin the common life. . . . The passions are regulated and inequalities of wealth and distinction are minimized. Needs, vanity, and emulation are restrained, often by prizing equality and holding riches in contempt. The desire for public power is curbed. Marriage and sexual intercourse are often controlled: in Tommaso Campanella's The City of the Sun (1623), the first great literary utopia after More's, relations are forbidden to men before the age of twenty-one and women before nineteen. Communal child-rearing is normal; for Campanella this commences at age two. Greater simplicity of life, 'living according to nature', is often a result: the desire for simplicity and purity are closely related. People become more alike in appearance, opinion, and outlook than they often have been. Unity, order, and homogeneity thus prevail at the cost of individuality and diversity. This model, as J. C. Davis demonstrates, dominated early modern utopianism. . . . And utopian homogeneity remains a familiar theme well into the twentieth century.

Given these considerations, it is not unreasonable to take as our starting point here the hypothesis that utopia and dystopia evidently share more in common than is often supposed. Indeed, they might be twins, the progeny of the same parents. Insofar as this proves to be the case, my linkage of both here will be uncomfortably close for some readers. Yet we should not mistake this argument for the assertion that all utopias are, or tend to produce, dystopias. Those who defend this proposition will find that their association here is not nearly close enough. For we have only to acknowledge the existence of thousands of successful intentional communities in which a cooperative ethos predominates and where harmony without coercion is the rule to set aside such an assertion. Here the individual's submersion in the group is consensual (though this concept is not unproblematic). It results not in enslavement but voluntary submission to group norms. Harmony is achieved without . . . harming others.

01.

Following from the passage, which one of the following may be seen as a characteristic of a utopian society?

 

• A. 

  A society without any laws to restrain one's individuality.

• B. 

  Institutional surveillance of every individual to ensure his/her security and welfare.

• C. 

  A society where public power is earned through merit rather than through privilege.

• D. 

  The regulation of homogeneity through promoting competitive heterogeneity.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option B is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

Note these lines that describe Utopia in the first paragraph: 'Utopia appears to rely upon relentless transparency, the repression of variety, and the curtailment of privacy. Utopia provides security: but at what price?' So, institutional surveillance in the name of security can be seen as a characteristic of a Utopian society. Options A and D are also ruled out from these lines. In the second paragraph, the passage mentions that Utopia curbs the desire for public power and promotes equality. So, option C is also incorrect.

02.

Which sequence of words below best captures the narrative of the passage?

 

• A. 

  Curtailment of privacy - Dystopia - Utopia - Intentional community.

• B. 

  Relentless transparency - Homogeneity - Utopia - Dystopia.

• C. 

  Utopia - Security - Dystopia - Coercion.

• D. 

  Utopia - Security - Homogeneity - Intentional community.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option D is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

A tricky question. All options contain words that are key ideas in the passage. So, to choose the correct option, we need to look at an important idea that is missed in some options. Options B and C can be ruled out this way, as they do not mention 'intentional communities' which is a key idea in the last paragraph. Between options A and B, option A does not mention the idea of 'homogeneity', which the passage talks about in detail in the second paragraph. Option D includes both these ideas and hence it best captures the narrative of the passage.

03.

All of the following statements can be inferred from the passage EXCEPT that:

 

• A. 

  it is possible to see utopias as dystopias, with a change in perspective, because one person's utopia could be seen as another's dystopia.

• B. 

  utopian and dystopian societies are twins, the progeny of the same parents.

• C. 

  utopian societies exist in a long tradition of literature dealing with imaginary people practicing imaginary customs, in imaginary worlds.

• D. 

  many conceptions of utopian societies emphasise the importance of social uniformity and cultural homogeneity.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option B is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

A tricky question. The author starts the last paragraph saying that as utopia and dystopia share a lot in common, it may not be unreasonable to start with the hypothesis that they are 'twins'. But the author goes on to say that while the two are 'uncomfortably close', 'we should not mistake this argument for the assertion that all utopias are, or tend to produce, dystopias. Those who defend this proposition will find that their association here is not nearly close enough'. In other words, utopias are not dystopias and the two cannot be regarded as exactly alike, or twins. Option B cannot be inferred from the passage.
Option A can be inferred, from the lines 'Utopia provides security: but at what price? In both its external and internal relations, indeed, it seems perilously dystopian'.
In the second paragraph, the passage talks about the literary utopia of More and Campanella with imaginary customs and rules being practised in these imaginary societies. So, option C can be inferred.
Again, from the last lines of the second paragraph 'utopian homogeneity remains a familiar theme well into the twentieth century', option D can also be inferred.

04.

All of the following arguments are made in the passage EXCEPT that:

 

• A. 

  in More's time, there was plenty and security, so people did not need restraints that could appear unreasonable.

• B. 

  the tradition of utopian literature has often shown societies in which it would be nearly impossible for anyone to be sinful or criminal.

• C. 

  there have been thousands of communities where homogeneity and stability have been achieved through choice, rather than by force.

• D. 

  in early modern utopianism, the stability of utopian societies was seen to be achieved only with individuals surrendering their sense of self.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

Another tricky question. The passage states that 'in More's time, for much of the population, given the plenty and security on offer, such restraints would not have seemed overly unreasonable'. Option A alters a few words and changes the meaning of what is stated in the passage. The passage does not say people 'need' restraints.
Option B is true, based on the second paragraph which states that the tradition which follows More 'often portrays societies where . . . 'it would be almost impossible for man to be depraved, or wicked'.
Option C is true based on the last few lines of the passage: 'For we have only to acknowledge the existence of thousands of successful intentional communities in which a cooperative ethos predominates and where harmony without coercion is the rule to set aside such an assertion'.
From the last few lines of the second paragraph, we know option D is true : 'Unity, order, and homogeneity thus prevail at the cost of individuality and diversity. This model, as J. C. Davis demonstrates, dominated early modern utopianism'.

The passage below is accompanied by a set of questions. Choose the best answer to each question.

For the Maya of the Classic period, who lived in Southern Mexico and Central America between 250 and 900 CE, the category of 'persons' was not coincident with human beings, as it is for us. That is, human beings were persons “ but other, nonhuman entities could be persons, too. . . . In order to explore the slippage of categories between 'humans' and 'persons', I examined a very specific category of ancient Maya images, found painted in scenes on ceramic vessels. I sought out instances in which faces (some combination of eyes, nose, and mouth) are shown on inanimate objects. . . . Consider my iPhone, which needs to be fed with electricity every night, swaddled in a protective bumper, and enjoys communicating with other fellow-phone-beings. Does it have personhood (if at all) because it is connected to me, drawing this resource from me as an owner or source? For the Maya (who did have plenty of other communicating objects, if not smartphones), the answer was no. Nonhuman persons were not tethered to specific humans, and they did not derive their personhood from a connection with a human. . . . It's a profoundly democratising way of understanding the world. Humans are not more important persons “ we are just one of many kinds of persons who inhabit this world. . . .

The Maya saw personhood as 'activated' by experiencing certain bodily needs and through participation in certain social activities. For example, among the faced objects that I examined, persons are marked by personal requirements (such as hunger, tiredness, physical closeness), and by community obligations (communication, interaction, ritual observance). In the images I examined, we see, for instance, faced objects being cradled in humans' arms; we also see them speaking to humans. These core elements of personhood are both turned inward, what the body or self of a person requires, and outward, what a community expects of the persons who are a part of it, underlining the reciprocal nature of community membership. . . .

Personhood was a nonbinary proposition for the Maya. Entities were able to be persons while also being something else. The faced objects I looked at indicate that they continue to be functional, doing what objects do (a stone implement continues to chop, an incense burner continues to do its smoky work). Furthermore, the Maya visually depicted many objects in ways that indicated the material category to which they belonged “ drawings of the stone implement show that a person-tool is still made of stone. One additional complexity: the incense burner (which would have been made of clay, and decorated with spiky appliques representing the sacred ceiba tree found in this region) is categorised as a person “ but also as a tree. With these Maya examples, we are challenged to discard the person/nonperson binary that constitutes our basic ontological outlook. . . . The porousness of boundaries that we have seen in the Maya world points towards the possibility of living with a certain uncategorisability of the world.

01.

Which one of the following, if true about the Classic Maya, would invalidate the purpose of the iPhone example in the passage?

 

• A. 

  The personhood of the incense burner and the stone chopper was a function of their usefulness to humans.

• B. 

  Classic Maya songs represent both humans and non-living objects as characters, talking and interacting with each other.

• C. 

  The clay incense burner with spiky appliques was categorised only as a person and not as a tree by the Classic Maya.

• D. 

  Unlike modern societies equipped with mobile phones, the Classic Maya did not have any communicating objects.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

The author cites the example of an iPhone to illustrate the idea that nonhuman persons did not derive their personhood simply because of their human connection or their usefulness to humans. The Maya would not have regarded the iphone as a nonhuman person; personhood would be 'activated' only when the nonhuman person experiences certain bodily needs or participates in certain social activities.
If option A were true “ if the incense burner and stone chopper were regarded as persons just because of their usefulness to humans “ then the purpose of the iPhone example would be invalidated.
All other options given do not relate to the reason why Maya categorised objects as persons. So, these are ruled out.

02.

Which one of the following, if true, would not undermine the democratising potential of the Classic Maya worldview?

 

• A. 

  They believed that animals like cats and dogs that live in proximity to humans have a more clearly articulated personhood.

• B. 

  They understood the stone implement and the incense burner in a purely human form.

• C. 

  While they believed in the personhood of objects and plants, they did not believe in the personhood of rivers and animals.

• D. 

  They depicted their human healers with physical attributes of local medicinal plants.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option D is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

Trickily worded question. The answer option is one that does not undermine the democratising potential of the Maya worldview. That is, it should be in line with the Maya worldview.
Let us look at the options one after the other.
If option A were true, cats and dogs would be considered superior to other nonpersons. This would mean an unequal world. So, option A would undermine the 'democratising' potential of the Maya worldview.
If option B were true and the stone implement and incense burner were only regarded as humans, not objects, that would again suggest humans are in some way superior to nonpersons. The Maya thought entities could be persons while also being something else. So, option B, too, would undermine the 'democratising' potential of the Maya worldview.
Similarly, if option C were true, then it would suggest that some objects 'deserved' to be persons, while others did not. This too would undermine the 'democratising' potential of the Maya worldview.
Only option D, if true, is in line with the essence of the Maya worldview. Human healers being given the physical attributes of local medicinal plants suggests that these plants are equal in status to humans.

03.

On the basis of the passage, which one of the following worldviews can be inferred to be closest to that of the Classic Maya?

 

• A. 

  A tribe that perceives its hunting weapons as sacred person-artefacts because of their significance to its survival.

• B. 

  A futuristic society that perceives robots to be persons as well as robots because of their similarity to humans.

• C. 

  A tribe that perceives plants as person-plants because they form an ecosystem and are marked by needs of nutrition.

• D. 

  A tribe that perceives its utensils as person-utensils in light of their functionality and bodily needs.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option C is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

For the Mayans, personhood 'activated' by experiencing certain bodily needs and through participation in certain social activities.
Personhood was not based on the usefulness of nonpersons to humans or their similarity to humans. So, options A and B are easily ruled out.
While both options C and D talk about the 'bodily needs' of nonpersons, only C relates to the idea of social participation. Plants form an ecosystem, participating in a community. Option D, on the other hand, talks about the functionality of utensils being a reason why they are regarded as persons. This is not in line with the Classic Maya worldview. So, the correct answer is option C.

04.

Which one of the following best explains the "additional complexity" that the example of the incense burner illustrates regarding personhood for the Classic Maya?

 

• A. 

  The example adds a new layer to the nonbinary understanding of personhood by bringing in a third category that shares a dissimilar relation with the previous two.

• B. 

  The example complicates the nonbinary understanding of personhood by bringing in the sacred, establishing the porosity of the divine and the profane.

• C. 

  The example provides an exception to the nonbinary understanding of personhood that the passage had hitherto established.

• D. 

  The example adds a new layer to the nonbinary understanding of personhood by bringing in a third category that shares a similar relation with the previous two.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option D is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

In the example of the incense burner, the 'additional complexity' is that, in addition to being categorised as a person, it was also categorised as a tree as it was decorated with spiky appliques representing the sacred ceiba tree. The third categorisation as a tree is on par and similar to the other two categorisations; the same object is a tree and a person-tool. So, option D is the correct answer.

The passage below is accompanied by a set of questions. Choose the best answer to each question.

The sleights of hand that conflate consumption with virtue are a central theme in A Thirst for Empire, a sweeping and richly detailed history of tea by the historian Erika Rappaport. How did tea evolve from an obscure "China drink" to a universal beverage imbued with civilising properties? The answer, in brief, revolves around this conflation, not only by profit-motivated marketers but by a wide variety of interest groups. While abundant historical records have allowed the study of how tea itself moved from east to west, Rappaport is focused on the movement of the idea of tea to suit particular purposes.

Beginning in the 1700s, the temperance movement advocated for tea as a pleasure that cheered but did not inebriate, and industrialists soon borrowed this moral argument in advancing their case for free trade in tea (and hence more open markets for their textiles). Factory owners joined in, compelled by the cause of a sober workforce, while Christian missionaries discovered that tea "would soothe any colonial encounter". During the Second World War, tea service was presented as a social and patriotic activity that uplifted soldiers and calmed refugees.

But it was tea's consumer-directed marketing by importers and retailers “ and later by brands “ that most closely portends current trade debates. An early version of the "farm to table" movement was sparked by anti-Chinese sentiment and concerns over trade deficits, as well as by the reality and threat of adulterated tea containing dirt and hedge clippings. Lipton was soon advertising "from the Garden to Tea Cup" supply chains originating in British India and supervised by "educated Englishmen". While tea marketing always presented direct consumer benefits (health, energy, relaxation), tea drinkers were also assured that they were participating in a larger noble project that advanced the causes of family, nation and civilization. . . .

Rappaport's treatment of her subject is refreshingly apolitical. Indeed, it is a virtue that readers will be unable to guess her political orientation: both the miracle of markets and capitalism's dark underbelly are evident in tea's complex story, as are the complicated effects of British colonialism. . . . Commodity histories are now themselves commodities: recent works investigate cotton, salt, cod, sugar, chocolate, paper and milk. And morality marketing is now a commodity as well, applied to food, "fair trade" apparel and eco-tourism. Yet tea is, Rappaport makes clear, a world apart “ an astonishing success story in which tea marketers not only succeeded in conveying a sense of moral elevation to the consumer but also arguably did advance the cause of civilisation and community.

I have been offered tea at a British garden party, a Bedouin campfire, a Turkish carpet shop and a Japanese chashitsu, to name a few settings. In each case the offering was more an idea “ friendship, community, respect “ than a drink, and in each case the idea then created a reality. It is not a stretch to say that tea marketers have advanced the particularly noble cause of human dialogue and friendship.

01.

The author of this book review is LEAST likely to support the view that:

• A. 

  tea drinking was sometimes promoted as a patriotic duty.

• B. 

  the ritual of drinking tea promotes congeniality and camaraderie.

• C. 

  tea drinking has become a social ritual worldwide.

• D. 

  tea became the leading drink in Britain in the nineteenth century.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option D is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

Except option D, all other options are mentioned in the passage.
'I have been offered tea at a British garden party, a Bedouin campfire, a Turkish carpet shop and a Japanese chashitsu, to name a few settings. In each case the offering was more an idea “ friendship, community, respect “ than a drink, and in each case the idea then created a reality.' From these lines, we know options B and C are true.
Option A is also true: 'During the Second World War, tea service was presented as a social and patriotic activity that uplifted soldiers and calmed refugees'.
The author, however, does not say that tea became the leading drink in Britain in the nineteenth century. So, the author is least likely to support option D.

02.

This book review argues that, according to Rappaport, tea is unlike other "morality" products because it:

• A. 

  appealed to a universal group and not just to a niche section of people.

• B. 

  had an actual beneficial effect on social interaction and society in general.

• C. 

  was actively encouraged by interest groups in the government.

• D. 

  was marketed by a wide range of interest groups.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option B is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

The author talks about morality marketing and states that 'tea is......a world apart “ an astonishingsuccess story in which tea marketers not only succeeded in conveying a sense of moral elevation to the consumer but also arguably did advance the cause of civilisation and community'. So, the correct choice is option B.

03.

According to this book review, A Thirst for Empire says that, in addition to "profit-motivated marketers", tea drinking was promoted in Britain by all of the following EXCEPT:

• A. 

  factories to instill sobriety in their labour.

• B. 

  tea drinkers lobbying for product diversity.

• C. 

  manufacturers who were pressing for duty-free imports.

• D. 

  the anti-alcohol lobby as a substitute for the consumption of liquor.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option B is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

The second paragraph talks about 'the temperance movement' (anti-alcohol lobby) advocating tea as it 'cheered but did not inebriate', industrialists supporting free trade in tea in order to gain 'open markets' (duty-free markets) for textiles and factory owners joining the group advocating tea, as it meant 'a sober workforce'. So, options A, C and D are correct. The passage does not talk about tea drinkers lobbying for product diversity. So, the correct choice is B.

04.

Today, "conflat[ing] consumption with virtue" can be seen in the marketing of:

• A. 

  sustainably farmed foods.

• B. 

  ergonomically designed products.

• C. 

  travel to pristine destinations.

• D. 

  natural health supplements.

Correct Answer Explanatory Answer

Option is the correct answer.

Video Explanation

Explanatory Answer

Conflating™ means mixing or confusing two different things. ˜Conflating consumption with virtue™ implies promoting consumption of something as virtuous. The consumption of sustainably farmed foods is marketed as the right thing to do, so option A is the correct answer.